कंस्ट्रक्टर और new()

local function deepCopy(orig)
  if type(orig)~="table" then return orig end
  local copy = {}
  for k,v in pairs(orig) do copy[deepCopy(k)]=deepCopy(v) end
  return setmetatable(copy, getmetatable(orig))
end

local Item = {}
Item.__index = Item

function Item.new(name, stats)
  return setmetatable({name=name, stats=stats or {}}, Item)
end

function Item:clone()
  return deepCopy(self)
end

local sword = Item.new("Sword",{damage=50})
local clone = sword:clone()
clone.stats.damage = 30
print(sword.stats.damage)  -- 50 (unchanged)

local Rectangle = {}
Rectangle.__index = Rectangle

function Rectangle.new(w, h)
  assert(type(w)=="number" and w>0,"width must be positive number")
  assert(type(h)=="number" and h>0,"height must be positive number")
  return setmetatable({width=w, height=h}, Rectangle)
end

function Rectangle:area() return self.width * self.height end
function Rectangle:perimeter() return 2*(self.width+self.height) end

local r = Rectangle.new(5, 3)
print(r:area(), r:perimeter())  -- 15  16

local Sprite = {}
Sprite.__index = Sprite

local DEFAULTS = {x=0,y=0,rotation=0,scale=1,visible=true,alpha=1}

function Sprite.new(image, opts)
  local cfg = opts or {}
  local self = {image=image}
  for k,v in pairs(DEFAULTS) do
    self[k] = cfg[k] ~= nil and cfg[k] or v
  end
  return setmetatable(self, Sprite)
end

local s = Sprite.new("hero.png",{x=100,y=200})
print(s.x,s.y,s.scale)  -- 100 200 1

local Color = {}
Color.__index = Color

function Color.fromRGB(r,g,b)
  return setmetatable({r=r,g=g,b=b}, Color)
end

function Color.fromHex(hex)
  hex = hex:gsub("#","")
  return setmetatable({
    r=tonumber(hex:sub(1,2),16),
    g=tonumber(hex:sub(3,4),16),
    b=tonumber(hex:sub(5,6),16),
  }, Color)
end

function Color:toHex()
  return string.format("#%02X%02X%02X",self.r,self.g,self.b)
end

local red = Color.fromHex("#FF0000")
print(red:toHex())  -- #FF0000

local Enemy = {}
Enemy.__index = Enemy
Enemy._all = {}

function Enemy.new(name, hp)
  local self = setmetatable({name=name, hp=hp}, Enemy)
  Enemy._all[#Enemy._all+1] = self
  return self
end

function Enemy.destroyAll()
  for _, e in ipairs(Enemy._all) do
    print("Destroying:", e.name)
  end
  Enemy._all = {}
end

Enemy.new("Goblin",30)
Enemy.new("Orc",80)
print("Count:", #Enemy._all)  -- 2
Enemy.destroyAll()

local BigData = {}
BigData.__index = function(t, k)
  if k == "processed" then
    print("Computing processed...")
    local result = {}
    for i,v in ipairs(rawget(t,"raw")) do result[i]=v*2 end
    rawset(t,"processed",result)
    return result
  end
end

function BigData.new(raw)
  return setmetatable({raw=raw}, BigData)
end

local d = BigData.new({1,2,3,4,5})
print(d.processed[3])  -- Computing...  6
print(d.processed[3])  -- 6 (cached, no recompute)

local Unit = {}
Unit.__index = Unit

function Unit.new(t)
  return setmetatable({name=t.name,hp=t.hp,atk=t.atk}, Unit)
end

function Unit:clone()
  return Unit.new({name=self.name,hp=self.hp,atk=self.atk})
end

function Unit:__tostring()
  return self.name.."(HP:"..self.hp..",ATK:"..self.atk..")"
end

local template = Unit.new({name="Soldier",hp=100,atk=10})
local u1 = template:clone(); u1.name="Alpha"
local u2 = template:clone(); u2.name="Beta"
print(tostring(u1),tostring(u2))

local FileHandle = {}
FileHandle.__index = FileHandle

function FileHandle.new(path, mode)
  local f, err = io.open(path, mode or "r")
  if not f then
    return nil, "cannot open " .. path .. ": " .. err
  end
  return setmetatable({_f=f, path=path}, FileHandle)
end

function FileHandle:read(fmt) return self._f:read(fmt) end
function FileHandle:close() self._f:close() end

local fh, err = FileHandle.new("data.txt")
if not fh then print("Error:", err)
else print(fh:read("l")); fh:close()
end