कस्टम मेटाक्लास लिखना

class MyMeta(type):
    pass

class Foo(metaclass=MyMeta):
    pass

print(type(Foo))   # <class '__main__.MyMeta'>

class UpperAttrMeta(type):
    def __new__(mcs, name, bases, namespace):
        upper = {k.upper(): v for k, v in namespace.items()
                 if not k.startswith("_")}
        return super().__new__(mcs, name, bases, {**namespace, **upper})

class Config(metaclass=UpperAttrMeta):
    debug = True

print(Config.DEBUG)  # True

_registry = {}

class AutoRegisterMeta(type):
    def __init__(cls, name, bases, namespace):
        super().__init__(name, bases, namespace)
        if bases:   # skip the base class itself
            _registry[name] = cls

class Handler(metaclass=AutoRegisterMeta): pass
class JSONHandler(Handler): pass
class XMLHandler(Handler):  pass

print(_registry)  # {'JSONHandler': ..., 'XMLHandler': ...}

class InterfaceMeta(type):
    REQUIRED = frozenset({"process", "validate"})

    def __new__(mcs, name, bases, ns):
        if bases and not mcs.REQUIRED.issubset(ns):
            missing = mcs.REQUIRED - ns.keys()
            raise TypeError(f"{name} must define: {missing}")
        return super().__new__(mcs, name, bases, ns)

class Worker(metaclass=InterfaceMeta):
    def process(self): ...
    def validate(self): ...

class SingletonMeta(type):
    _instances = {}
    def __call__(cls, *a, **kw):
        if cls not in cls._instances:
            cls._instances[cls] = super().__call__(*a, **kw)
        return cls._instances[cls]

class DB(metaclass=SingletonMeta):
    pass

print(DB() is DB())  # True

class MethodInjectorMeta(type):
    def __new__(mcs, name, bases, ns):
        ns["describe"] = lambda self: f"I am {type(self).__name__}"
        return super().__new__(mcs, name, bases, ns)

class Widget(metaclass=MethodInjectorMeta):
    pass

print(Widget().describe())   # I am Widget

class NoDuplicatesMeta(type):
    class _NS(dict):
        def __setitem__(self, k, v):
            if k in self and not k.startswith("_"):
                raise ValueError(f"Duplicate attribute: {k}")
            super().__setitem__(k, v)

    @classmethod
    def __prepare__(mcs, name, bases):
        return mcs._NS()

class MetaA(type): pass
class MetaB(type): pass

# class Bad(A, B): pass  # TypeError: metaclass conflict

class MetaAB(MetaA, MetaB): pass   # resolve manually

class A(metaclass=MetaA): pass
class B(metaclass=MetaB): pass
class Good(A, B, metaclass=MetaAB): pass

class Base:
    _registry = []
    def __init_subclass__(cls, **kw):
        super().__init_subclass__(**kw)
        Base._registry.append(cls)

class ChildA(Base): pass
class ChildB(Base): pass

print(Base._registry)  # [ChildA, ChildB]

class TraceMeta(type):
    def __getattribute__(cls, name):
        val = super().__getattribute__(name)
        if not name.startswith("_"):
            print(f"Accessing class attr: {name}")
        return val

class Config(metaclass=TraceMeta):
    HOST = "localhost"

_ = Config.HOST   # logs: Accessing class attr: HOST

class Field:
    def __init__(self, col): self.col = col

class ModelMeta(type):
    def __new__(mcs, name, bases, ns):
        fields = {k: v for k, v in ns.items() if isinstance(v, Field)}
        ns["_fields"] = fields
        return super().__new__(mcs, name, bases, ns)

class User(metaclass=ModelMeta):
    name = Field("name")
    email = Field("email")

print(User._fields.keys())  # dict_keys(['name', 'email'])