Python क्लास कैसे बनाई जाती हैं

# These are equivalent:
class Dog:
    sound = "woof"

Dog2 = type("Dog2", (), {"sound": "woof"})
print(type(Dog))    # <class 'type'>
print(type(Dog2))   # <class 'type'>

Animal = type("Animal", (), {"speak": lambda self: "..."})
Dog = type("Dog", (Animal,), {"speak": lambda self: "woof"})

d = Dog()
print(d.speak())   # woof

# class Foo(Base, metaclass=Meta):
#   x = 1
#
# Equivalent to:
# namespace = Meta.__prepare__("Foo", (Base,))
# exec(class_body, namespace)
# Foo = Meta("Foo", (Base,), namespace)

class OrderedMeta(type):
    @classmethod
    def __prepare__(mcs, name, bases, **kw):
        print(f"Preparing namespace for {name}")
        return {}

class MyClass(metaclass=OrderedMeta):
    x = 1
    y = 2

class Singleton(type):
    _instances = {}

    def __call__(cls, *args, **kw):
        if cls not in cls._instances:
            cls._instances[cls] = super().__call__(*args, **kw)
        return cls._instances[cls]

class DB(metaclass=Singleton):
    pass

print(DB() is DB())  # True

def add_repr(cls):
    cls.__repr__ = lambda self: f"{cls.__name__}()"
    return cls

@add_repr
class Widget:
    pass

print(Widget())  # Widget()

class Plugin:
    _registry = []

    def __init_subclass__(cls, **kw):
        super().__init_subclass__(**kw)
        Plugin._registry.append(cls)

class AudioPlugin(Plugin): pass
class VideoPlugin(Plugin): pass

print(Plugin._registry)  # [AudioPlugin, VideoPlugin]

from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

class Shape(metaclass=ABCMeta):
    @abstractmethod
    def area(self): ...

class Circle(Shape):
    def __init__(self, r): self.r = r
    def area(self): return 3.14159 * self.r ** 2

# Shape()  # TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class

class Meta(type): pass

class Foo(metaclass=Meta): pass

print(type(Foo))       # <class '__main__.Meta'>
print(Foo.__mro__)     # (Foo, object)

class MyMeta(type): pass

class Base(metaclass=MyMeta): pass
class Child(Base): pass   # Child's metaclass is also MyMeta

print(type(Child))   # <class '__main__.MyMeta'>

# Real-world: Django ORM uses ModelBase metaclass
# to collect field definitions into _meta

# You rarely need a custom metaclass;
# __init_subclass__ covers most plugin/registration patterns