软间隔 SVM 与 C 参数

The hard-margin SVM requires that every training example be correctly classified with a margin of at least 1, leaving no room for error. In practice, real datasets are almost never perfectly linearly separable. Noise, mislabelled examples, and genuine class overlap mean that a hard margin is either impossible to satisfy or results in a boundary so contorted to avoid every violation that it overfits the training data. We need a principled way to allow some mistakes while still maximising the margin.

The soft-margin SVM introduces slack variables ξᵢ ≥ 0 (xi, pronounced 'ksi'), one per training example, that measure how much a point violates the margin. If ξᵢ = 0, the point is correctly classified outside the margin. If 0 < ξᵢ < 1, the point is inside the margin but correctly classified. If ξᵢ > 1, the point is misclassified. The new objective minimises ||w||²/2 + C × Σξᵢ, balancing margin width against total violation.

C is the regularisation penalty: it controls how much the SVM penalises each margin violation. A large C imposes a heavy penalty, forcing the model to misclassify as few points as possible at the expense of a narrower margin — this leads to low bias, high variance (risk of overfitting). A small C accepts more violations in exchange for a wider, smoother margin — this leads to higher bias, lower variance (more robust to noise). Finding the right C requires cross-validation.

With a very small C (e.g. 0.001), the SVM produces a wide margin with many misclassified training points — the boundary is smooth and generalises well but underfits if the data is cleanly separable. With a very large C (e.g. 1000), the boundary bends to correctly classify almost every training point, producing a narrow margin that may overfit. The optimal C sits between these extremes. This trade-off mirrors the bias-variance trade-off seen in all regularised models.

As C decreases (more regularisation, wider margin), more training examples violate the margin and become support vectors. As C increases (less regularisation, narrower margin), fewer examples lie on or inside the margin, so fewer support vectors are needed. You can observe this by inspecting svm.n_support_. A model with many support vectors relies on more training examples to define its boundary — it tends to be more robust but also more complex.

The soft-margin SVM minimises the hinge loss: max(0, 1 - y × (w·x + b)) for each training example, plus the L2 regularisation term ||w||²/(2C). Hinge loss is zero when a point is correctly classified beyond the margin (the point 'has no loss'). As a point moves toward or across the boundary, loss increases linearly. This makes SVMs less sensitive to outliers than squared-error loss, which would penalise far-wrong predictions quadratically.

scikit-learn provides LinearSVC as a faster alternative to SVC(kernel='linear') for large datasets. It uses the LIBLINEAR optimiser (primal or dual coordinate descent) instead of LIBSVM's quadratic programming solver. For datasets with tens of thousands of examples, LinearSVC can be 10-100x faster while producing nearly identical results. It does not support predict_proba() natively, but you can apply Platt scaling via CalibratedClassifierCV.

The optimal C value spans many orders of magnitude, so always search on a logarithmic scale: [0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000]. Linear spacing misses the important range of small values. Use GridSearchCV with 5-fold CV to evaluate each C. For SVM specifically, the search is one-dimensional (or two-dimensional with gamma for RBF kernel), making it computationally feasible even with a fine grid.

The soft-margin concept applies equally to non-linear kernels (RBF, polynomial). When you use an RBF kernel, C still controls the tolerance for margin violations, but now the boundary can be a curved surface in the original input space. A small C with an RBF kernel creates a very smooth, nearly circular boundary. A large C with a small gamma creates an extremely complex boundary that tightly wraps around every training cluster. Both extremes overfit in their own way.

Think of the soft-margin SVM as a tradeoff dial. Turn C up: the model becomes aggressive, punishing every violation, squeezing the margin to fit training data. Turn C down: the model becomes lenient, accepting violations, widening the margin, prioritising generalisation. The right C is the one that strikes the balance your specific dataset needs. This is not unique to SVMs — regularisation appears in ridge regression (alpha), logistic regression (C), and neural networks (weight decay), always trading bias for variance.

Both logistic regression and the soft-margin SVM find linear decision boundaries, but they optimise different loss functions. Logistic regression minimises log-loss, which penalises all misclassifications continuously. SVM minimises hinge loss, which is zero for correctly classified points outside the margin and linear for violations. In practice: SVMs often outperform logistic regression on low-dimensional datasets with clear margins, while logistic regression is preferred when well-calibrated probability estimates are needed or when the dataset is large (millions of examples), where it is faster to train.

Test your understanding of the Soft Margin SVM and C parameter from this lesson.

In this lesson you learned: the soft-margin SVM allows controlled margin violations via slack variables, C is the regularisation penalty that balances margin width against training errors, and always search C on a logarithmic scale using cross-validation. Next up we explore the kernel trick that extends SVMs to non-linear boundaries.