कस्टम Exception Classes बनाना

class HttpError(
    message: String,
    val statusCode: Int
) : Exception(message)
fun main() {
    try {
        throw HttpError("Not Found", 404)
    } catch (e: HttpError) {
        println("HTTP ${e.statusCode}: ${e.message}")
    }
}

class DatabaseError(message: String, cause: Throwable) : Exception(message, cause)
fun main() {
    try {
        try { error("connection refused") }
        catch (e: Throwable) { throw DatabaseError("query failed", e) }
    } catch (e: DatabaseError) {
        println("${e.message} (caused by: ${e.cause?.message})")
    }
}

class ValidationException(field: String, message: String) :
    RuntimeException("[$field] $message")
fun main() {
    try {
        throw ValidationException("age", "must be positive")
    } catch (e: ValidationException) {
        println(e.message)
    }
}

open class AppException(message: String) : RuntimeException(message)
class NotFoundException(what: String) : AppException("$what not found")
class UnauthorizedException : AppException("not authorized")
fun main() {
    val errors = listOf(NotFoundException("user"), UnauthorizedException())
    for (e in errors) {
        try { throw e }
        catch (e: AppException) { println("App error: ${e.message}") }
    }
}

sealed class ApiError(message: String) : RuntimeException(message) {
    class Timeout : ApiError("timeout")
    class NotFound(val id: String) : ApiError("not found: $id")
    class ServerError(val status: Int) : ApiError("server returned $status")
}
fun describe(e: ApiError) = when (e) {
    is ApiError.Timeout -> "request timed out"
    is ApiError.NotFound -> "id ${e.id} missing"
    is ApiError.ServerError -> "5xx: ${e.status}"
}
fun main() {
    println(describe(ApiError.NotFound("user-42")))
}

class InvalidInputException(msg: String) : RuntimeException(msg)
class UserNotFoundException(id: Int) : RuntimeException("user $id not found")
fun main() {
    try { throw UserNotFoundException(7) }
    catch (e: UserNotFoundException) { println(e.message) }
}

/**
 * @throws InvalidEmailException if the email is malformed
 */
fun validate(email: String) {
    if ("@" !in email) throw InvalidEmailException("missing @")
}
class InvalidEmailException(m: String) : RuntimeException(m)
fun main() {
    try { validate("nope") }
    catch (e: InvalidEmailException) { println(e.message) }
}

fun findUser(id: Int): String? = if (id == 1) "Alice" else null
fun main() {
    val name = findUser(42) ?: "(unknown)"
    println(name) // (unknown), no exception
}

class ApiException(
    message: String,
    val statusCode: Int,
    val responseBody: String
) : RuntimeException(message)
fun main() {
    try {
        throw ApiException("Bad Request", 400, "{\"error\":\"invalid\"}")
    } catch (e: ApiException) {
        println("[${e.statusCode}] ${e.message}: ${e.responseBody}")
    }
}