जटिल प्रकार: List, Dict, Optional, Union

from typing import List, Dict, Tuple, Optional, Union

# Python 3.9+: use list[int], dict[str,int] directly
# Python 3.8-: use typing.List[int], typing.Dict[str,int]

from typing import Sequence

def total(nums: list[int]) -> int:
    return sum(nums)

def first(items: Sequence[str]) -> str:
    return items[0]   # works with list, tuple, str

from typing import Mapping

def lookup(data: Mapping[str, int], key: str) -> int | None:
    return data.get(key)

result = lookup({"a": 1, "b": 2}, "a")
print(result)   # 1

def point() -> tuple[float, float]:
    return (1.0, 2.0)

def first_n(n: int) -> tuple[int, ...]:
    return tuple(range(n))

# Named tuple with types:
from typing import NamedTuple
class Point(NamedTuple):
    x: float
    y: float

from typing import Optional

def find_user(user_id: int) -> Optional[dict[str, str]]:
    db: dict[int, dict[str, str]] = {
        1: {"name": "Alice"}
    }
    return db.get(user_id)

from typing import Union

def stringify(value: Union[int, float, str]) -> str:
    return str(value)

# Python 3.10+:
def stringify2(value: int | float | str) -> str:
    return str(value)

from typing import Literal

Mode = Literal["read", "write", "append"]

def open_file(path: str, mode: Mode) -> None:
    with open(path, mode):
        pass

open_file("data.txt", "read")    # ok
# open_file("data.txt", "exec")  # mypy error

from typing import TypedDict

class User(TypedDict):
    name: str
    age: int
    email: str | None

def greet(user: User) -> str:
    return f"Hello, {user['name']}"

alice: User = {"name": "Alice", "age": 30, "email": None}

def unique(items: list[int]) -> set[int]:
    return set(items)

def allowed_methods() -> frozenset[str]:
    return frozenset({"GET", "POST", "DELETE"})

from typing import Iterable, Iterator

def evens(numbers: Iterable[int]) -> Iterator[int]:
    return (n for n in numbers if n % 2 == 0)

for n in evens([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]):
    print(n)   # 2 4

from typing import Any, NoReturn

def accept_all(x: Any) -> None:
    print(x)

def crash(msg: str) -> NoReturn:
    raise RuntimeError(msg)   # never returns normally