where के साथ Generic Functions और Type Constraints

fun <T : Any> notNull(value: T?): T {
    return value ?: throw IllegalArgumentException("Value is null")
}
fun main() {
    println(notNull("hello"))  // hello
    try { notNull(null) } catch (e: Exception) { println(e.message) }
}

fun <T> process(item: T): String
        where T : Comparable<T>, T : CharSequence {
    return "Length=${item.length}, sorted=${item > "a"}"
}
fun main() {
    println(process("kotlin")) // Length=6, sorted=true
    // process(42) // error: Int doesn't implement CharSequence
}

class SortedContainer<T>(private val items: MutableList<T> = mutableListOf())
        where T : Comparable<T>, T : Any {
    fun add(item: T) { items.add(item); items.sort() }
    fun top(): T? = items.lastOrNull()
}
fun main() {
    val c = SortedContainer<Int>()
    c.add(5); c.add(2); c.add(8)
    println(c.top()) // 8
}

fun <T : Comparable<T>> List<T>.second(): T? {
    return if (size >= 2) this[1] else null
}
fun main() {
    println(listOf(10, 20, 30).second()) // 20
    println(listOf("a").second())        // null
}

fun <T> MutableList<T>.popOrDefault(default: T): T {
    return if (isEmpty()) default else removeAt(lastIndex)
}
fun main() {
    val list = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
    println(list.popOrDefault(0)) // 3
    println(list.popOrDefault(0)) // 2
    println(mutableListOf<Int>().popOrDefault(-1)) // -1
}

fun <T> Iterable<T>.firstOrElse(default: T): T = firstOrNull() ?: default
fun <T, R : Comparable<R>> Iterable<T>.maxByOrElse(selector: (T) -> R, default: T): T =
    maxByOrNull(selector) ?: default
fun main() {
    println(listOf<String>().firstOrElse("fallback")) // fallback
    println(listOf("a","bbb","cc").maxByOrElse({ it.length }, "")) // bbb
}

fun <T : Number> sumList(list: List<T>): Double =
    list.sumOf { it.toDouble() }
// Star projection: read-only, type unknown
fun printAll(list: List<*>) = list.forEach { println(it) }
fun main() {
    println(sumList(listOf(1, 2, 3)))    // 6.0
    printAll(listOf("a", 1, true))       // a, 1, true
}

fun <A, B> Pair<A, B>.swap(): Pair<B, A> = Pair(second, first)
fun main() {
    val pair = Pair("hello", 42)
    val swapped = pair.swap()
    println(swapped) // (42, hello)
}

fun <T : Any, R : Any> Result<T>.mapNotNull(transform: (T) -> R?): Result<R> {
    return fold(
        onSuccess = { v ->
            val r = transform(v)
            if (r != null) Result.success(r) else Result.failure(NoSuchElementException())
        },
        onFailure = { Result.failure(it) }
    )
}
fun main() {
    val r = Result.success("123")
    val n = r.mapNotNull { it.toIntOrNull() }
    println(n) // Success(123)
}