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# Combining different types triggers implicit coercion
v1 <- c(TRUE, 1L, 2.5)   # logical < integer < double => double
v2 <- c(1, 2, 'three')    # double < character => character
v3 <- c(FALSE, 0L, 0.0)   # all become double

cat('c(TRUE,1L,2.5)   :', v1, '| typeof:', typeof(v1), '
')
cat('c(1,2,"three")   :', v2, '| typeof:', typeof(v2), '
')
cat('c(FALSE,0L,0.0)  :', v3, '| typeof:', typeof(v3), '
')

flags <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)
result <- c(flags, 10L)
cat('c(logicals, 10L):', result, '
')       # 1 0 1 1 0 10
cat('typeof:          ', typeof(result), '
') # integer

# Adding an integer to a logical vector
cat('flags + 1L:', flags + 1L, '
')  # 2 1 2 2 1

int_vec <- c(1L, 2L, 3L)
dbl_val <- 1.5

result <- c(int_vec, dbl_val)
cat('Combined:', result, '
')
cat('typeof:', typeof(result), '
')  # double

# identical() is type-sensitive
cat('identical(1L, 1.0):', identical(1L, 1.0), '
')  # FALSE!
cat('1L == 1.0:         ', 1L == 1.0, '
')           # TRUE (value equal)

# One string contaminates a whole numeric vector!
measurements <- c(22.1, 19.8, 'missing', 25.1, 17.3)
cat('Values:', measurements, '
')
cat('typeof:', typeof(measurements), '
')  # character!

# Now arithmetic fails
result <- suppressWarnings(as.numeric(measurements))
cat('After as.numeric:', result, '
')   # 22.1 19.8 NA 25.1 17.3
cat('NA introduced:  ', sum(is.na(result)), '
')

salary_factor <- factor(c('50000', '75000', '60000', '80000'))
cat('Factor levels:', levels(salary_factor), '
')

# WRONG: gives integer codes 1,2,3,4
wrong <- as.numeric(salary_factor)
cat('Wrong (codes):  ', wrong, '
')  # 1 3 2 4 (alphabetical order)

# CORRECT: convert via character first
correct <- as.numeric(as.character(salary_factor))
cat('Correct values: ', correct, '
')  # 50000 75000 60000 80000

# Conversion of non-numeric strings produces NA + warning
bad_inputs <- c('42', 'hello', '3.14', 'N/A', '100')
cat('Input:', bad_inputs, '
')

numeric_vals <- suppressWarnings(as.numeric(bad_inputs))
cat('Converted:', numeric_vals, '
')  # 42 NA 3.14 NA 100
cat('NAs introduced:', sum(is.na(numeric_vals)), '
')

# Check validity before converting
can_convert <- !is.na(suppressWarnings(as.numeric(bad_inputs)))
cat('Valid numerics:', bad_inputs[can_convert], '
')

is_numeric_string <- function(x) {
  !is.na(suppressWarnings(as.numeric(x)))
}

test_strings <- c('3.14', 'abc', '-5', 'Inf', '1e3', 'TRUE', '0')
cat('String     | Is numeric?
')
for (s in test_strings) {
  cat(sprintf('%-10s | %s
', s, is_numeric_string(s)))
}

# Vector: coerces to character
v <- c(42, 'hello', TRUE)
cat('Vector:', v, '| typeof:', typeof(v), '
')  # character!

# List: preserves types
l <- list(42, 'hello', TRUE)
cat('List element types:', sapply(l, typeof), '
')  # double, character, logical

# TRUE/FALSE are automatically treated as 1/0
x <- TRUE
y <- FALSE
cat('TRUE + 1:   ', x + 1, '
')   # 2
cat('FALSE * 10: ', y * 10, '
')  # 0
cat('TRUE / 4:   ', x / 4, '
')   # 0.25

# Counting with sum
pass_flags <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)
cat('Passing count:', sum(pass_flags), '
')  # 3

# Implicit (works but hides intent)
counts <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)
total_implicit <- sum(counts)  # relies on logical-to-int coercion

# Explicit (clearer intent)
counts_int <- as.integer(counts)
total_explicit <- sum(counts_int)

cat('Implicit:  ', total_implicit, '
')
cat('Explicit:  ', total_explicit, '
')
cat('Both equal:', total_implicit == total_explicit, '
')

# The coercion hierarchy demonstrated
cat('logical+integer : ', typeof(c(TRUE, 1L)), '
')   # integer
cat('integer+double  : ', typeof(c(1L, 1.5)), '
')   # double
cat('double+character: ', typeof(c(1.5, 'a')), '
')  # character

# Final: safe factor-to-numeric conversion
price_factor <- factor(c('29.99', '14.99', '49.99', '9.99'))
cat('Factor levels:', levels(price_factor), '
')

# Wrong way
cat('WRONG (codes):  ', as.numeric(price_factor), '
')
# Right way
cat('CORRECT (vals): ', as.numeric(as.character(price_factor)), '
')